usse/funda-scraper/venv/lib/python3.10/site-packages/mypyc/doc/dev-intro.md

Introduction for Mypyc Contributors

This is a short introduction aimed at anybody who is interested in contributing to mypyc, or anybody who is curious to understand how mypyc works internally.

Key Differences from Python

Code compiled using mypyc is often much faster than CPython since it does these things differently:

• Mypyc generates C that is compiled to native code, instead of compiling to interpreted byte code, which CPython uses. Interpreted byte code always has some interpreter overhead, which slows things down.

• Mypyc doesn't let you arbitrarily monkey patch classes and functions in compiled modules. This allows early binding -- mypyc statically binds calls to compiled functions, instead of going through a namespace dictionary. Mypyc can also call methods of compiled classes using vtables, which are more efficient than dictionary lookups used by CPython.

• Mypyc compiles classes to C extension classes, which are generally more efficient than normal Python classes. They use an efficient, fixed memory representation (essentially a C struct). This lets us use direct memory access instead of (typically) two hash table lookups to access an attribute.

• As a result of early binding, compiled code can use C calls to call compiled functions. Keyword arguments can be translated to positional arguments during compilation. Thus most calls to native functions and methods directly map to simple C calls. CPython calls are quite expensive, since mapping of keyword arguments, *args, and so on has to mostly happen at runtime.

• Compiled code has runtime type checks to ensure that runtimes types match the declared static types. Compiled code can thus make assumptions about the types of expressions, resulting in both faster and smaller code, since many runtime type checks performed by the CPython interpreter can be omitted.

• Compiled code can often use unboxed (not heap allocated) representations for integers, booleans and tuples.

Supported Python Features

Mypyc supports a large subset of Python. Note that if you try to compile something that is not supported, you may not always get a very good error message.

Here are some major things that aren't yet supported in compiled code:

• Many dunder methods (only some work, such as __init__ and __eq__)
• Monkey patching compiled functions or classes
• General multiple inheritance (a limited form is supported)
• Named tuple defined using the class-based syntax
• Defining protocols

We are generally happy to accept contributions that implement new Python features.

Development Environment

First you should set up the mypy development environment as described in the mypy docs. macOS, Linux and Windows are supported.

Compiling and Running Programs

When working on a mypyc feature or a fix, you'll often need to run compiled code. For example, you may want to do interactive testing or to run benchmarks. This is also handy if you want to inspect the generated C code (see Inspecting Generated C).

Run mypyc to compile a module to a C extension using your development version of mypyc:

$ mypyc program.py

This will generate a C extension for program in the current working directory. For example, on a Linux system the generated file may be called program.cpython-37m-x86_64-linux-gnu.so.

Since C extensions can't be run as programs, use python3 -c to run the compiled module as a program:

$ python3 -c "import program"

Note that __name__ in program.py will now be program, not __main__!

You can manually delete the C extension to get back to an interpreted version (this example works on Linux):

$ rm program.*.so

Another option is to invoke mypyc through tests (see Testing below).

High-level Overview of Mypyc

Mypyc compiles a Python module (or a set of modules) to C, and compiles the generated C to a Python C extension module (or modules). You can compile only a subset of your program to C -- compiled and interpreted code can freely and transparently interact. You can also freely use any Python libraries (including C extensions) in compiled code.

Mypyc will only make compiled code faster. To see a significant speedup, you must make sure that most of the time is spent in compiled code -- and not in libraries, for example.

Mypyc has these passes:

• Type check the code using mypy and infer types for variables and expressions. This produces a mypy AST (defined in mypy.nodes) and a type map that describes the inferred types (mypy.types.Type) of all expressions (as PEP 484 types).

• Translate the mypy AST into a mypyc-specific intermediate representation (IR).

  • The IR is defined in mypyc.ir (see below for an explanation of the IR).
  • Various primitive operations used in the IR are defined in mypyc.primitives.
  • The translation to IR happens in mypyc.irbuild. The top-level logic is in mypyc.irbuild.main.

• Insert checks for uses of potentially uninitialized variables (mypyc.transform.uninit).

• Insert exception handling (mypyc.transform.exceptions).

• Insert explicit reference count inc/dec opcodes (mypyc.transform.refcount).

• Translate the IR into C (mypyc.codegen).

• Compile the generated C code using a C compiler (mypyc.build).

Useful Background Information

Beyond the mypy documentation, here are some things that are helpful to know for mypyc contributors:

• Experience with C (The C Programming Language is a classic book about C)
• Basic familiarity with the Python C API (see Python C API documentation). Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter is a good tutorial for beginners.
• Basics of compilers (see the mypy wiki for some ideas)

Mypyc Intermediate Representation (IR)

The mypyc IR is defined in mypyc.ir. It covers several key concepts that are essential to understand by all mypyc contributors:

• mypyc.ir.ops.Op is an Abstract Base Class for all IR operations. These are low-level and generally map to simple fragments of C each. Mypy expressions are translated to linear sequences of these ops.

• mypyc.ir.ops.BasicBlock is a container of a sequence of ops with a branch/goto/return at the end, and no branch/goto/return ops in the middle. Each function is compiled to a bunch of basic blocks.

• mypyc.ir.rtypes.RType and its subclasses are the types used for everything in the IR. These are lower-level and simpler than mypy or PEP 484 types. For example, there are no general-purpose generic types types here. Each List[X] type (for any X) is represented by a single list type, for example.

• Primitive types are special RTypes of which mypyc has some special understanding, and there are typically some specialized ops. Examples include int (referred to as int_rprimitive in the code) and list (list_rprimitive). Python types for which there is no specific RType type will be represented by the catch-all object_rprimitive type.

• Instances of compiled classes are generally represented using the RInstance type. Classes are compiled to C extension classes and contain vtables for fast method calls and fast attribute access.

• IR representations of functions and classes live in mypyc.ir.func_ir and mypyc.ir.class_ir, respectively.

Look at the docstrings and comments in mypyc.ir for additional information. See the test cases in mypyc/test-data/irbuild-basic.test for examples of what the IR looks like in a pretty-printed form.

Testing overview

Most mypyc test cases are defined in the same format (.test) as used for test cases for mypy. Look at mypy developer documentation for a general overview of how things work. Test cases live under mypyc/test-data/, and you can run all mypyc tests via pytest -q mypyc. If you don't make changes to code under mypy/, it's not important to regularly run mypy tests during development.

When you create a PR, we have Continuous Integration jobs set up that compile mypy using mypyc and run the mypy test suite using the compiled mypy. This will sometimes catch additional issues not caught by the mypyc test suite. It's okay to not do this in your local development environment.

We discuss writing tests in more detail later in this document.

Inspecting Generated IR

It's often useful to look at the generated IR when debugging issues or when trying to understand how mypyc compiles some code. When you compile some module by running mypyc, mypyc will write the pretty-printed IR into build/ops.txt. This is the final IR that includes the output from exception and reference count handling insertion passes.

We also have tests that verify the generate IR (mypyc/test-data/irbuild-*.text).

Type-checking Mypyc

./runtests.py self type checks mypy and mypyc. This is pretty slow, however, since it's using an uncompiled mypy.

Installing a released version of mypy using pip (which is compiled) and using dmypy (mypy daemon) is a much, much faster way to type check mypyc during development.

Value Representation

Mypyc uses a tagged pointer representation for values of type int (CPyTagged), char for booleans, and C structs for tuples. For most other objects mypyc uses the CPython PyObject *.

Python integers that fit in 31/63 bits (depending on whether we are on a 32-bit or 64-bit platform) are represented as C integers (CPyTagged) shifted left by 1. Integers that don't fit in this representation are represented as pointers to a PyObject * (this is always a Python int object) with the least significant bit set. Tagged integer operations are defined in mypyc/lib-rt/int_ops.c and mypyc/lib-rt/CPy.h.

There are also low-level integer types, such as int32 (see mypyc.ir.rtypes), that don't use the tagged representation. These types are not exposed to users, but they are used in generated code.

Overview of Generated C

Mypyc compiles a function into two functions, a native function and a wrapper function:

• The native function takes a fixed number of C arguments with the correct C types. It assumes that all argument have correct types.

• The wrapper function conforms to the Python C API calling convention and takes an arbitrary set of arguments. It processes the arguments, checks their types, unboxes values with special representations and calls the native function. The return value from the native function is translated back to a Python object ("boxing").

Calls to other compiled functions don't go through the Python module namespace but directly call the target native C function. This makes calls very fast compared to CPython.

The generated code does runtime checking so that it can assume that values always have the declared types. Whenever accessing CPython values which might have unexpected types we need to insert a runtime type check operation. For example, when getting a list item we need to insert a runtime type check (an unbox or a cast operation), since Python lists can contain arbitrary objects.

The generated code uses various helpers defined in mypyc/lib-rt/CPy.h. The implementations are in various .c files under mypyc/lib-rt.

Inspecting Generated C

It's often useful to inspect the C code genenerate by mypyc to debug issues. Mypyc stores the generated C code as build/__native.c. Compiled native functions have the prefix CPyDef_, while wrapper functions used for calling functions from interpreted Python code have the CPyPy_ prefix.

Other Important Limitations

All of these limitations will likely be fixed in the future:

• We don't detect stack overflows.

• We don't handle Ctrl-C in compiled code.

Hints for Implementing Typical Mypyc Features

This section gives an overview of where to look for and what to do to implement specific kinds of mypyc features.

Testing

Our bread-and-butter testing strategy is compiling code with mypyc and running it. There are downsides to this (kind of slow, tests a huge number of components at once, insensitive to the particular details of the IR), but there really is no substitute for running code. You can also write tests that test the generated IR, however.

Tests that compile and run code

Test cases that compile and run code are located in mypyc/test-data/run*.test and the test runner is in mypyc.test.test_run. The code to compile comes after [case test<name>]. The code gets saved into the file native.py, and it gets compiled into the module native.

Each test case uses a non-compiled Python driver that imports the native module and typically calls some compiled functions. Some tests also perform assertions and print messages in the driver.

If you don't provide a driver, a default driver is used. The default driver just calls each module-level function that is prefixed with test_ and reports any uncaught exceptions as failures. (Failure to build or a segfault also count as failures.) testStringOps in mypyc/test-data/run-strings.test is an example of a test that uses the default driver.

You should usually use the default driver (don't include driver.py). It's the simplest way to write most tests.

Here's an example test case that uses the default driver:

[case testConcatenateLists]
def test_concat_lists() -> None:
    assert [1, 2] + [5, 6] == [1, 2, 5, 6]

def test_concat_empty_lists() -> None:
    assert [] + [] == []

There is one test case, testConcatenateLists. It has two sub-cases, test_concat_lists and test_concat_empty_lists. Note that you can use the pytest -k argument to only run testConcetanateLists, but you can't filter tests at the sub-case level.

It's recommended to have multiple sub-cases per test case, since each test case has significant fixed overhead. Each test case is run in a fresh Python subprocess.

Many of the existing test cases provide a custom driver by having [file driver.py], followed by the driver implementation. Here the driver is not compiled, which is useful if you want to test interactions between compiled and non-compiled code. However, many of the tests don't have a good reason to use a custom driver -- when they were written, the default driver wasn't available.

Test cases can also have a [out] section, which specifies the expected contents of stdout the test case should produce. New test cases should prefer assert statements to [out] sections.

IR tests

If the specifics of the generated IR of a change is important (because, for example, you want to make sure a particular optimization is triggering), you should add a mypyc.irbuild test as well. Test cases are located in mypyc/test-data/irbuild-*.test and the test driver is in mypyc.test.test_irbuild. IR build tests do a direct comparison of the IR output, so try to make the test as targeted as possible so as to capture only the important details. (Many of our existing IR build tests do not follow this advice, unfortunately!)

If you pass the --update-data flag to pytest, it will automatically update the expected output of any tests to match the actual output. This is very useful for changing or creating IR build tests, but make sure to carefully inspect the diff!

You may also need to add some definitions to the stubs used for builtins during tests (mypyc/test-data/fixtures/ir.py). We don't use full typeshed stubs to run tests since they would seriously slow down tests.

Benchmarking

Many mypyc improvements attempt to make some operations faster. For any such change, you should run some measurements to verify that there actually is a measurable performance impact.

A typical benchmark would initialize some data to be operated on, and then measure time spent in some function. In particular, you should not measure time needed to run the entire benchmark program, as this would include Python startup overhead and other things that aren't relevant. In general, for microbenchmarks, you want to do as little as possible in the timed portion. So ideally you'll just have some loops and the code under test. Be ready to provide your benchmark in code review so that mypyc developers can check that the benchmark is fine (writing a good benchmark is non-trivial).

You should run a benchmark at least five times, in both original and changed versions, ignore outliers, and report the average runtime. Actual performance of a typical desktop or laptop computer is quite variable, due to dynamic CPU clock frequency changes, background processes, etc. If you observe a high variance in timings, you'll need to run the benchmark more times. Also try closing most applications, including web browsers.

Interleave original and changed runs. Don't run 10 runs with variant A followed by 10 runs with variant B, but run an A run, a B run, an A run, etc. Otherwise you risk that the CPU frequency will be different between variants. You can also try adding a delay of 5 to 20s between runs to avoid CPU frequency changes.

Instead of averaging over many measurements, you can try to adjust your environment to provide more stable measurements. However, this can be hard to do with some hardware, including many laptops. Victor Stinner has written a series of blog posts about making measurements stable:

• https://vstinner.github.io/journey-to-stable-benchmark-system.html
• https://vstinner.github.io/journey-to-stable-benchmark-average.html

Adding C Helpers

If you add an operation that compiles into a lot of C code, you may also want to add a C helper function for the operation to make the generated code smaller. Here is how to do this:

• Declare the operation in mypyc/lib-rt/CPy.h. We avoid macros, and we generally avoid inline functions to make it easier to target additional backends in the future.

• Consider adding a unit test for your C helper in mypyc/lib-rt/test_capi.cc. We use Google Test for writing tests in C++. The framework is included in the repository under the directory googletest/. The C unit tests are run as part of the pytest test suite (test_c_unit_test).

Adding a Specialized Primitive Operation

Mypyc speeds up operations on primitive types such as list and int by having primitive operations specialized for specific types. These operations are declared in mypyc.primitives (and mypyc/lib-rt/CPy.h). For example, mypyc.primitives.list_ops contains primitives that target list objects.

The operation definitions are data driven: you specify the kind of operation (such as a call to builtins.len or a binary addition) and the operand types (such as list_primitive), and what code should be generated for the operation. Mypyc does AST matching to find the most suitable primitive operation automatically.

Look at the existing primitive definitions and the docstrings in mypyc.primitives.registry for examples and more information.

Adding a New Primitive Type

Some types (typically Python Python built-in types), such as int and list, are special cased in mypyc to generate optimized operations specific to these types. We'll occasionally want to add additional primitive types.

Here are some hints about how to add support for a new primitive type (this may be incomplete):

• Decide whether the primitive type has an "unboxed" representation (a representation that is not just PyObject *). For most types we'll use a boxed representation, as it's easier to implement and more closely matches Python semantics.

• Create a new instance of RPrimitive to support the primitive type and add it to mypyc.ir.rtypes. Make sure all the attributes are set correctly and also define <foo>_rprimitive and is_<foo>_rprimitive.

• Update mypyc.irbuild.mapper.Mapper.type_to_rtype().

• If the type is not unboxed, update emit_cast in mypyc.codegen.emit.

If the type is unboxed, there are some additional steps:

• Update emit_box in mypyc.codegen.emit.

• Update emit_unbox in mypyc.codegen.emit.

• Update emit_inc_ref and emit_dec_ref in mypypc.codegen.emit. If the unboxed representation does not need reference counting, these can be no-ops.

• Update emit_error_check in mypyc.codegen.emit.

• Update emit_gc_visit and emit_gc_clear in mypyc.codegen.emit if the type has an unboxed representation with pointers.

The above may be enough to allow you to declare variables with the type, pass values around, perform runtime type checks, and use generic fallback primitive operations to perform method calls, binary operations, and so on. You likely also want to add some faster, specialized primitive operations for the type (see Adding a Specialized Primitive Operation above for how to do this).

Add a test case to mypyc/test-data/run*.test to test compilation and running compiled code. Ideas for things to test:

• Test using the type as an argument.

• Test using the type as a return value.

• Test passing a value of the type to a function both within compiled code and from regular Python code. Also test this for return values.

• Test using the type as list item type. Test both getting a list item and setting a list item.

Supporting More Python Syntax

Mypyc supports most Python syntax, but there are still some gaps.

Support for syntactic sugar that doesn't need additional IR operations typically only requires changes to mypyc.irbuild.

Some new syntax also needs new IR primitives to be added to mypyc.primitives. See mypyc.primitives.registry for documentation about how to do this.

Other Hints

• This developer documentation is not aimed to be very complete. Much of our documentation is in comments and docstring in the code. If something is unclear, study the code.

• It can be useful to look through some recent PRs to get an idea of what typical code changes, test cases, etc. look like.

• Feel free to open GitHub issues with questions if you need help when contributing, or ask questions in existing issues. Note that we only support contributors. Mypyc is not (yet) an end-user product. You can also ask questions in our Gitter chat (https://gitter.im/mypyc-dev/community).

Undocumented Workflows

These workflows would be useful for mypyc contributors. We should add them to mypyc developer documentation:

• How to inspect the generated IR before some transform passes.