873 lines
30 KiB
Python
873 lines
30 KiB
Python
from __future__ import absolute_import
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import io
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import logging
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import sys
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import zlib
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from contextlib import contextmanager
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from socket import error as SocketError
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from socket import timeout as SocketTimeout
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try:
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try:
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import brotlicffi as brotli
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except ImportError:
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import brotli
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except ImportError:
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brotli = None
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from . import util
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from ._collections import HTTPHeaderDict
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from .connection import BaseSSLError, HTTPException
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from .exceptions import (
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BodyNotHttplibCompatible,
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DecodeError,
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HTTPError,
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IncompleteRead,
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InvalidChunkLength,
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InvalidHeader,
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ProtocolError,
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ReadTimeoutError,
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ResponseNotChunked,
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SSLError,
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)
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from .packages import six
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from .util.response import is_fp_closed, is_response_to_head
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log = logging.getLogger(__name__)
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class DeflateDecoder(object):
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def __init__(self):
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self._first_try = True
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self._data = b""
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self._obj = zlib.decompressobj()
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def __getattr__(self, name):
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return getattr(self._obj, name)
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def decompress(self, data):
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if not data:
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return data
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if not self._first_try:
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return self._obj.decompress(data)
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self._data += data
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try:
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decompressed = self._obj.decompress(data)
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if decompressed:
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self._first_try = False
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self._data = None
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return decompressed
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except zlib.error:
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self._first_try = False
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self._obj = zlib.decompressobj(-zlib.MAX_WBITS)
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try:
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return self.decompress(self._data)
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finally:
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self._data = None
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class GzipDecoderState(object):
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FIRST_MEMBER = 0
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OTHER_MEMBERS = 1
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SWALLOW_DATA = 2
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class GzipDecoder(object):
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def __init__(self):
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self._obj = zlib.decompressobj(16 + zlib.MAX_WBITS)
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self._state = GzipDecoderState.FIRST_MEMBER
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def __getattr__(self, name):
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return getattr(self._obj, name)
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def decompress(self, data):
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ret = bytearray()
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if self._state == GzipDecoderState.SWALLOW_DATA or not data:
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return bytes(ret)
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while True:
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try:
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ret += self._obj.decompress(data)
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except zlib.error:
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previous_state = self._state
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# Ignore data after the first error
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self._state = GzipDecoderState.SWALLOW_DATA
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if previous_state == GzipDecoderState.OTHER_MEMBERS:
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# Allow trailing garbage acceptable in other gzip clients
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return bytes(ret)
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raise
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data = self._obj.unused_data
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if not data:
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return bytes(ret)
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self._state = GzipDecoderState.OTHER_MEMBERS
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self._obj = zlib.decompressobj(16 + zlib.MAX_WBITS)
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if brotli is not None:
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class BrotliDecoder(object):
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# Supports both 'brotlipy' and 'Brotli' packages
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# since they share an import name. The top branches
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# are for 'brotlipy' and bottom branches for 'Brotli'
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def __init__(self):
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self._obj = brotli.Decompressor()
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if hasattr(self._obj, "decompress"):
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self.decompress = self._obj.decompress
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else:
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self.decompress = self._obj.process
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def flush(self):
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if hasattr(self._obj, "flush"):
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return self._obj.flush()
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return b""
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class MultiDecoder(object):
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"""
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From RFC7231:
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If one or more encodings have been applied to a representation, the
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sender that applied the encodings MUST generate a Content-Encoding
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header field that lists the content codings in the order in which
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they were applied.
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"""
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def __init__(self, modes):
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self._decoders = [_get_decoder(m.strip()) for m in modes.split(",")]
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def flush(self):
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return self._decoders[0].flush()
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def decompress(self, data):
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for d in reversed(self._decoders):
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data = d.decompress(data)
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return data
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def _get_decoder(mode):
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if "," in mode:
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return MultiDecoder(mode)
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if mode == "gzip":
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return GzipDecoder()
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if brotli is not None and mode == "br":
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return BrotliDecoder()
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return DeflateDecoder()
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class HTTPResponse(io.IOBase):
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"""
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HTTP Response container.
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Backwards-compatible with :class:`http.client.HTTPResponse` but the response ``body`` is
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loaded and decoded on-demand when the ``data`` property is accessed. This
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class is also compatible with the Python standard library's :mod:`io`
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module, and can hence be treated as a readable object in the context of that
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framework.
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Extra parameters for behaviour not present in :class:`http.client.HTTPResponse`:
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:param preload_content:
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If True, the response's body will be preloaded during construction.
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:param decode_content:
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If True, will attempt to decode the body based on the
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'content-encoding' header.
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:param original_response:
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When this HTTPResponse wrapper is generated from an :class:`http.client.HTTPResponse`
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object, it's convenient to include the original for debug purposes. It's
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otherwise unused.
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:param retries:
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The retries contains the last :class:`~urllib3.util.retry.Retry` that
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was used during the request.
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:param enforce_content_length:
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Enforce content length checking. Body returned by server must match
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value of Content-Length header, if present. Otherwise, raise error.
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"""
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CONTENT_DECODERS = ["gzip", "deflate"]
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if brotli is not None:
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CONTENT_DECODERS += ["br"]
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REDIRECT_STATUSES = [301, 302, 303, 307, 308]
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def __init__(
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self,
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body="",
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headers=None,
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status=0,
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version=0,
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reason=None,
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strict=0,
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preload_content=True,
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decode_content=True,
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original_response=None,
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pool=None,
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connection=None,
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msg=None,
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retries=None,
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enforce_content_length=False,
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request_method=None,
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request_url=None,
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auto_close=True,
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):
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if isinstance(headers, HTTPHeaderDict):
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self.headers = headers
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else:
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self.headers = HTTPHeaderDict(headers)
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self.status = status
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self.version = version
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self.reason = reason
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self.strict = strict
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self.decode_content = decode_content
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self.retries = retries
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self.enforce_content_length = enforce_content_length
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self.auto_close = auto_close
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self._decoder = None
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self._body = None
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self._fp = None
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self._original_response = original_response
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self._fp_bytes_read = 0
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self.msg = msg
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self._request_url = request_url
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if body and isinstance(body, (six.string_types, bytes)):
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self._body = body
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self._pool = pool
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self._connection = connection
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if hasattr(body, "read"):
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self._fp = body
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# Are we using the chunked-style of transfer encoding?
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self.chunked = False
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self.chunk_left = None
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tr_enc = self.headers.get("transfer-encoding", "").lower()
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# Don't incur the penalty of creating a list and then discarding it
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encodings = (enc.strip() for enc in tr_enc.split(","))
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if "chunked" in encodings:
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self.chunked = True
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# Determine length of response
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self.length_remaining = self._init_length(request_method)
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# If requested, preload the body.
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if preload_content and not self._body:
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self._body = self.read(decode_content=decode_content)
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def get_redirect_location(self):
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"""
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Should we redirect and where to?
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:returns: Truthy redirect location string if we got a redirect status
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code and valid location. ``None`` if redirect status and no
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location. ``False`` if not a redirect status code.
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"""
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if self.status in self.REDIRECT_STATUSES:
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return self.headers.get("location")
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return False
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def release_conn(self):
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if not self._pool or not self._connection:
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return
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self._pool._put_conn(self._connection)
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self._connection = None
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def drain_conn(self):
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"""
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Read and discard any remaining HTTP response data in the response connection.
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Unread data in the HTTPResponse connection blocks the connection from being released back to the pool.
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"""
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try:
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self.read()
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except (HTTPError, SocketError, BaseSSLError, HTTPException):
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pass
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@property
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def data(self):
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# For backwards-compat with earlier urllib3 0.4 and earlier.
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if self._body:
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return self._body
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if self._fp:
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return self.read(cache_content=True)
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@property
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def connection(self):
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return self._connection
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def isclosed(self):
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return is_fp_closed(self._fp)
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def tell(self):
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"""
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Obtain the number of bytes pulled over the wire so far. May differ from
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the amount of content returned by :meth:``urllib3.response.HTTPResponse.read``
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if bytes are encoded on the wire (e.g, compressed).
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"""
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return self._fp_bytes_read
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def _init_length(self, request_method):
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"""
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Set initial length value for Response content if available.
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"""
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length = self.headers.get("content-length")
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if length is not None:
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if self.chunked:
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# This Response will fail with an IncompleteRead if it can't be
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# received as chunked. This method falls back to attempt reading
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# the response before raising an exception.
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log.warning(
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"Received response with both Content-Length and "
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"Transfer-Encoding set. This is expressly forbidden "
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"by RFC 7230 sec 3.3.2. Ignoring Content-Length and "
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"attempting to process response as Transfer-Encoding: "
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"chunked."
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)
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return None
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try:
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# RFC 7230 section 3.3.2 specifies multiple content lengths can
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# be sent in a single Content-Length header
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# (e.g. Content-Length: 42, 42). This line ensures the values
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# are all valid ints and that as long as the `set` length is 1,
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# all values are the same. Otherwise, the header is invalid.
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lengths = set([int(val) for val in length.split(",")])
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if len(lengths) > 1:
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raise InvalidHeader(
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"Content-Length contained multiple "
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"unmatching values (%s)" % length
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)
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length = lengths.pop()
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except ValueError:
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length = None
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else:
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if length < 0:
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length = None
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# Convert status to int for comparison
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# In some cases, httplib returns a status of "_UNKNOWN"
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try:
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status = int(self.status)
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except ValueError:
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status = 0
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# Check for responses that shouldn't include a body
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if status in (204, 304) or 100 <= status < 200 or request_method == "HEAD":
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length = 0
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return length
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def _init_decoder(self):
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"""
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Set-up the _decoder attribute if necessary.
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"""
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# Note: content-encoding value should be case-insensitive, per RFC 7230
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# Section 3.2
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content_encoding = self.headers.get("content-encoding", "").lower()
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if self._decoder is None:
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if content_encoding in self.CONTENT_DECODERS:
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self._decoder = _get_decoder(content_encoding)
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elif "," in content_encoding:
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encodings = [
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e.strip()
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for e in content_encoding.split(",")
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if e.strip() in self.CONTENT_DECODERS
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]
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if len(encodings):
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self._decoder = _get_decoder(content_encoding)
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DECODER_ERROR_CLASSES = (IOError, zlib.error)
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if brotli is not None:
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DECODER_ERROR_CLASSES += (brotli.error,)
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def _decode(self, data, decode_content, flush_decoder):
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"""
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Decode the data passed in and potentially flush the decoder.
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"""
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if not decode_content:
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return data
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try:
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if self._decoder:
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data = self._decoder.decompress(data)
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except self.DECODER_ERROR_CLASSES as e:
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content_encoding = self.headers.get("content-encoding", "").lower()
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raise DecodeError(
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"Received response with content-encoding: %s, but "
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"failed to decode it." % content_encoding,
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e,
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)
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if flush_decoder:
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data += self._flush_decoder()
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return data
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def _flush_decoder(self):
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"""
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Flushes the decoder. Should only be called if the decoder is actually
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being used.
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"""
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if self._decoder:
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buf = self._decoder.decompress(b"")
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return buf + self._decoder.flush()
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return b""
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@contextmanager
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def _error_catcher(self):
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"""
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Catch low-level python exceptions, instead re-raising urllib3
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variants, so that low-level exceptions are not leaked in the
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high-level api.
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On exit, release the connection back to the pool.
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"""
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clean_exit = False
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try:
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try:
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yield
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except SocketTimeout:
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# FIXME: Ideally we'd like to include the url in the ReadTimeoutError but
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# there is yet no clean way to get at it from this context.
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raise ReadTimeoutError(self._pool, None, "Read timed out.")
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except BaseSSLError as e:
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# FIXME: Is there a better way to differentiate between SSLErrors?
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if "read operation timed out" not in str(e):
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# SSL errors related to framing/MAC get wrapped and reraised here
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raise SSLError(e)
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raise ReadTimeoutError(self._pool, None, "Read timed out.")
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except (HTTPException, SocketError) as e:
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# This includes IncompleteRead.
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raise ProtocolError("Connection broken: %r" % e, e)
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# If no exception is thrown, we should avoid cleaning up
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# unnecessarily.
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clean_exit = True
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finally:
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# If we didn't terminate cleanly, we need to throw away our
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# connection.
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if not clean_exit:
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# The response may not be closed but we're not going to use it
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# anymore so close it now to ensure that the connection is
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# released back to the pool.
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if self._original_response:
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self._original_response.close()
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# Closing the response may not actually be sufficient to close
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# everything, so if we have a hold of the connection close that
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# too.
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if self._connection:
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self._connection.close()
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# If we hold the original response but it's closed now, we should
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# return the connection back to the pool.
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if self._original_response and self._original_response.isclosed():
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self.release_conn()
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def _fp_read(self, amt):
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"""
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Read a response with the thought that reading the number of bytes
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larger than can fit in a 32-bit int at a time via SSL in some
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known cases leads to an overflow error that has to be prevented
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if `amt` or `self.length_remaining` indicate that a problem may
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happen.
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The known cases:
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* 3.8 <= CPython < 3.9.7 because of a bug
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https://github.com/urllib3/urllib3/issues/2513#issuecomment-1152559900.
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* urllib3 injected with pyOpenSSL-backed SSL-support.
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* CPython < 3.10 only when `amt` does not fit 32-bit int.
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"""
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assert self._fp
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c_int_max = 2 ** 31 - 1
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if (
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(
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(amt and amt > c_int_max)
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or (self.length_remaining and self.length_remaining > c_int_max)
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)
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and not util.IS_SECURETRANSPORT
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and (util.IS_PYOPENSSL or sys.version_info < (3, 10))
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):
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buffer = io.BytesIO()
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# Besides `max_chunk_amt` being a maximum chunk size, it
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# affects memory overhead of reading a response by this
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# method in CPython.
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# `c_int_max` equal to 2 GiB - 1 byte is the actual maximum
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# chunk size that does not lead to an overflow error, but
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# 256 MiB is a compromise.
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max_chunk_amt = 2 ** 28
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while amt is None or amt != 0:
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if amt is not None:
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chunk_amt = min(amt, max_chunk_amt)
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amt -= chunk_amt
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else:
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chunk_amt = max_chunk_amt
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data = self._fp.read(chunk_amt)
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if not data:
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break
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buffer.write(data)
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del data # to reduce peak memory usage by `max_chunk_amt`.
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return buffer.getvalue()
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else:
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# StringIO doesn't like amt=None
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return self._fp.read(amt) if amt is not None else self._fp.read()
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def read(self, amt=None, decode_content=None, cache_content=False):
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"""
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Similar to :meth:`http.client.HTTPResponse.read`, but with two additional
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parameters: ``decode_content`` and ``cache_content``.
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:param amt:
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How much of the content to read. If specified, caching is skipped
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because it doesn't make sense to cache partial content as the full
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response.
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:param decode_content:
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If True, will attempt to decode the body based on the
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'content-encoding' header.
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:param cache_content:
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If True, will save the returned data such that the same result is
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returned despite of the state of the underlying file object. This
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is useful if you want the ``.data`` property to continue working
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after having ``.read()`` the file object. (Overridden if ``amt`` is
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set.)
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"""
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self._init_decoder()
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if decode_content is None:
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|
decode_content = self.decode_content
|
|
|
|
if self._fp is None:
|
|
return
|
|
|
|
flush_decoder = False
|
|
fp_closed = getattr(self._fp, "closed", False)
|
|
|
|
with self._error_catcher():
|
|
data = self._fp_read(amt) if not fp_closed else b""
|
|
if amt is None:
|
|
flush_decoder = True
|
|
else:
|
|
cache_content = False
|
|
if (
|
|
amt != 0 and not data
|
|
): # Platform-specific: Buggy versions of Python.
|
|
# Close the connection when no data is returned
|
|
#
|
|
# This is redundant to what httplib/http.client _should_
|
|
# already do. However, versions of python released before
|
|
# December 15, 2012 (http://bugs.python.org/issue16298) do
|
|
# not properly close the connection in all cases. There is
|
|
# no harm in redundantly calling close.
|
|
self._fp.close()
|
|
flush_decoder = True
|
|
if self.enforce_content_length and self.length_remaining not in (
|
|
0,
|
|
None,
|
|
):
|
|
# This is an edge case that httplib failed to cover due
|
|
# to concerns of backward compatibility. We're
|
|
# addressing it here to make sure IncompleteRead is
|
|
# raised during streaming, so all calls with incorrect
|
|
# Content-Length are caught.
|
|
raise IncompleteRead(self._fp_bytes_read, self.length_remaining)
|
|
|
|
if data:
|
|
self._fp_bytes_read += len(data)
|
|
if self.length_remaining is not None:
|
|
self.length_remaining -= len(data)
|
|
|
|
data = self._decode(data, decode_content, flush_decoder)
|
|
|
|
if cache_content:
|
|
self._body = data
|
|
|
|
return data
|
|
|
|
def stream(self, amt=2 ** 16, decode_content=None):
|
|
"""
|
|
A generator wrapper for the read() method. A call will block until
|
|
``amt`` bytes have been read from the connection or until the
|
|
connection is closed.
|
|
|
|
:param amt:
|
|
How much of the content to read. The generator will return up to
|
|
much data per iteration, but may return less. This is particularly
|
|
likely when using compressed data. However, the empty string will
|
|
never be returned.
|
|
|
|
:param decode_content:
|
|
If True, will attempt to decode the body based on the
|
|
'content-encoding' header.
|
|
"""
|
|
if self.chunked and self.supports_chunked_reads():
|
|
for line in self.read_chunked(amt, decode_content=decode_content):
|
|
yield line
|
|
else:
|
|
while not is_fp_closed(self._fp):
|
|
data = self.read(amt=amt, decode_content=decode_content)
|
|
|
|
if data:
|
|
yield data
|
|
|
|
@classmethod
|
|
def from_httplib(ResponseCls, r, **response_kw):
|
|
"""
|
|
Given an :class:`http.client.HTTPResponse` instance ``r``, return a
|
|
corresponding :class:`urllib3.response.HTTPResponse` object.
|
|
|
|
Remaining parameters are passed to the HTTPResponse constructor, along
|
|
with ``original_response=r``.
|
|
"""
|
|
headers = r.msg
|
|
|
|
if not isinstance(headers, HTTPHeaderDict):
|
|
if six.PY2:
|
|
# Python 2.7
|
|
headers = HTTPHeaderDict.from_httplib(headers)
|
|
else:
|
|
headers = HTTPHeaderDict(headers.items())
|
|
|
|
# HTTPResponse objects in Python 3 don't have a .strict attribute
|
|
strict = getattr(r, "strict", 0)
|
|
resp = ResponseCls(
|
|
body=r,
|
|
headers=headers,
|
|
status=r.status,
|
|
version=r.version,
|
|
reason=r.reason,
|
|
strict=strict,
|
|
original_response=r,
|
|
**response_kw
|
|
)
|
|
return resp
|
|
|
|
# Backwards-compatibility methods for http.client.HTTPResponse
|
|
def getheaders(self):
|
|
return self.headers
|
|
|
|
def getheader(self, name, default=None):
|
|
return self.headers.get(name, default)
|
|
|
|
# Backwards compatibility for http.cookiejar
|
|
def info(self):
|
|
return self.headers
|
|
|
|
# Overrides from io.IOBase
|
|
def close(self):
|
|
if not self.closed:
|
|
self._fp.close()
|
|
|
|
if self._connection:
|
|
self._connection.close()
|
|
|
|
if not self.auto_close:
|
|
io.IOBase.close(self)
|
|
|
|
@property
|
|
def closed(self):
|
|
if not self.auto_close:
|
|
return io.IOBase.closed.__get__(self)
|
|
elif self._fp is None:
|
|
return True
|
|
elif hasattr(self._fp, "isclosed"):
|
|
return self._fp.isclosed()
|
|
elif hasattr(self._fp, "closed"):
|
|
return self._fp.closed
|
|
else:
|
|
return True
|
|
|
|
def fileno(self):
|
|
if self._fp is None:
|
|
raise IOError("HTTPResponse has no file to get a fileno from")
|
|
elif hasattr(self._fp, "fileno"):
|
|
return self._fp.fileno()
|
|
else:
|
|
raise IOError(
|
|
"The file-like object this HTTPResponse is wrapped "
|
|
"around has no file descriptor"
|
|
)
|
|
|
|
def flush(self):
|
|
if (
|
|
self._fp is not None
|
|
and hasattr(self._fp, "flush")
|
|
and not getattr(self._fp, "closed", False)
|
|
):
|
|
return self._fp.flush()
|
|
|
|
def readable(self):
|
|
# This method is required for `io` module compatibility.
|
|
return True
|
|
|
|
def readinto(self, b):
|
|
# This method is required for `io` module compatibility.
|
|
temp = self.read(len(b))
|
|
if len(temp) == 0:
|
|
return 0
|
|
else:
|
|
b[: len(temp)] = temp
|
|
return len(temp)
|
|
|
|
def supports_chunked_reads(self):
|
|
"""
|
|
Checks if the underlying file-like object looks like a
|
|
:class:`http.client.HTTPResponse` object. We do this by testing for
|
|
the fp attribute. If it is present we assume it returns raw chunks as
|
|
processed by read_chunked().
|
|
"""
|
|
return hasattr(self._fp, "fp")
|
|
|
|
def _update_chunk_length(self):
|
|
# First, we'll figure out length of a chunk and then
|
|
# we'll try to read it from socket.
|
|
if self.chunk_left is not None:
|
|
return
|
|
line = self._fp.fp.readline()
|
|
line = line.split(b";", 1)[0]
|
|
try:
|
|
self.chunk_left = int(line, 16)
|
|
except ValueError:
|
|
# Invalid chunked protocol response, abort.
|
|
self.close()
|
|
raise InvalidChunkLength(self, line)
|
|
|
|
def _handle_chunk(self, amt):
|
|
returned_chunk = None
|
|
if amt is None:
|
|
chunk = self._fp._safe_read(self.chunk_left)
|
|
returned_chunk = chunk
|
|
self._fp._safe_read(2) # Toss the CRLF at the end of the chunk.
|
|
self.chunk_left = None
|
|
elif amt < self.chunk_left:
|
|
value = self._fp._safe_read(amt)
|
|
self.chunk_left = self.chunk_left - amt
|
|
returned_chunk = value
|
|
elif amt == self.chunk_left:
|
|
value = self._fp._safe_read(amt)
|
|
self._fp._safe_read(2) # Toss the CRLF at the end of the chunk.
|
|
self.chunk_left = None
|
|
returned_chunk = value
|
|
else: # amt > self.chunk_left
|
|
returned_chunk = self._fp._safe_read(self.chunk_left)
|
|
self._fp._safe_read(2) # Toss the CRLF at the end of the chunk.
|
|
self.chunk_left = None
|
|
return returned_chunk
|
|
|
|
def read_chunked(self, amt=None, decode_content=None):
|
|
"""
|
|
Similar to :meth:`HTTPResponse.read`, but with an additional
|
|
parameter: ``decode_content``.
|
|
|
|
:param amt:
|
|
How much of the content to read. If specified, caching is skipped
|
|
because it doesn't make sense to cache partial content as the full
|
|
response.
|
|
|
|
:param decode_content:
|
|
If True, will attempt to decode the body based on the
|
|
'content-encoding' header.
|
|
"""
|
|
self._init_decoder()
|
|
# FIXME: Rewrite this method and make it a class with a better structured logic.
|
|
if not self.chunked:
|
|
raise ResponseNotChunked(
|
|
"Response is not chunked. "
|
|
"Header 'transfer-encoding: chunked' is missing."
|
|
)
|
|
if not self.supports_chunked_reads():
|
|
raise BodyNotHttplibCompatible(
|
|
"Body should be http.client.HTTPResponse like. "
|
|
"It should have have an fp attribute which returns raw chunks."
|
|
)
|
|
|
|
with self._error_catcher():
|
|
# Don't bother reading the body of a HEAD request.
|
|
if self._original_response and is_response_to_head(self._original_response):
|
|
self._original_response.close()
|
|
return
|
|
|
|
# If a response is already read and closed
|
|
# then return immediately.
|
|
if self._fp.fp is None:
|
|
return
|
|
|
|
while True:
|
|
self._update_chunk_length()
|
|
if self.chunk_left == 0:
|
|
break
|
|
chunk = self._handle_chunk(amt)
|
|
decoded = self._decode(
|
|
chunk, decode_content=decode_content, flush_decoder=False
|
|
)
|
|
if decoded:
|
|
yield decoded
|
|
|
|
if decode_content:
|
|
# On CPython and PyPy, we should never need to flush the
|
|
# decoder. However, on Jython we *might* need to, so
|
|
# lets defensively do it anyway.
|
|
decoded = self._flush_decoder()
|
|
if decoded: # Platform-specific: Jython.
|
|
yield decoded
|
|
|
|
# Chunk content ends with \r\n: discard it.
|
|
while True:
|
|
line = self._fp.fp.readline()
|
|
if not line:
|
|
# Some sites may not end with '\r\n'.
|
|
break
|
|
if line == b"\r\n":
|
|
break
|
|
|
|
# We read everything; close the "file".
|
|
if self._original_response:
|
|
self._original_response.close()
|
|
|
|
def geturl(self):
|
|
"""
|
|
Returns the URL that was the source of this response.
|
|
If the request that generated this response redirected, this method
|
|
will return the final redirect location.
|
|
"""
|
|
if self.retries is not None and len(self.retries.history):
|
|
return self.retries.history[-1].redirect_location
|
|
else:
|
|
return self._request_url
|
|
|
|
def __iter__(self):
|
|
buffer = []
|
|
for chunk in self.stream(decode_content=True):
|
|
if b"\n" in chunk:
|
|
chunk = chunk.split(b"\n")
|
|
yield b"".join(buffer) + chunk[0] + b"\n"
|
|
for x in chunk[1:-1]:
|
|
yield x + b"\n"
|
|
if chunk[-1]:
|
|
buffer = [chunk[-1]]
|
|
else:
|
|
buffer = []
|
|
else:
|
|
buffer.append(chunk)
|
|
if buffer:
|
|
yield b"".join(buffer)
|